A brief history of the North Caucasus insurgency

The North Caucasus insurgency has been one of the most enduring and complex conflicts in post-Soviet Russia. Emerging from the political upheaval and instability of the early 1990s, it has evolved through distinct phases — from nationalist separatism to a broader jihadist movement — and has had a lasting impact on the region’s security dynamics. Once centred in Chechnya, the insurgency eventually spread across the North Caucasus, becoming a regional conflict with global jihadist connections.

At its height, the insurgency posed a significant challenge to Moscow’s control over the region, with devastating consequences for local populations. Over time, however, a combination of Russian counterinsurgency strategies and geopolitical developments weakened its organisational structure and diminished its influence. By the end of 2016, organised insurgency had ceased to exist in the region and has been replaced by isolated episodes of jihadist violence.

This article traces the historical roots of the North Caucasus insurgency, examines its ideological and geographical shifts, and explores its interactions with global jihadism. By understanding the insurgency's trajectory, analysts and researchers can better appreciate how it has shaped Russia's domestic security and come to form part of the global jihadist landscape.

Overview

• The historical roots of the North Caucasus insurgency
• The rise of jihadism and the regionalisation of insurgency
• The decline of the North Caucasus insurgency
• What to read next

The historical roots of the North Caucasus insurgency

The collapse of the Soviet Union and spreading instability

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 created a political and ideological vacuum across its former territories, with the North Caucasus emerging as a particularly volatile region. Long-standing ethnic tensions, economic stagnation, and weak governance combined to create fertile ground for instability. The federal centre struggled to maintain control, and nowhere was this truer than Chechnya, where aspirations for independence clashed with Moscow's determination to preserve territorial integrity.

In Chechnya, nationalist leaders – most notably Dzhokhar Dudayev – declared independence under the name of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (Chechenskaya Respublika Ichkeria, ChRI) in 1991. This assertion of sovereignty marked the beginning of a period of tension that would soon erupt into open conflict.

The First Chechen War (1994-1996): Nationalist aspirations

The First Chechen War broke out in 1994 when Russian forces launched a campaign to suppress Chechnya’s bid for independence. Labelled an operation to “restore constitutional order,” the conflict was defined by brutal urban warfare, significant civilian casualties, and widespread destruction. Chechen separatists framed their struggle as a nationalist fight for sovereignty.

Despite overwhelming military power, Russian forces faced fierce resistance and were unable to secure victory. The war ended in 1996 with the Khasavyurt Accord, which granted Chechnya de facto independence but left the region deeply unstable. A destroyed economy, displaced population, and proliferation of paramilitary groups set the stage for renewed conflict.

The Second Chechen War (1999-2002): Moscow reasserts control

The Second Chechen War began in 1999, spurred by Islamist militants’ incursions into neighbouring Dagestan and a series of apartment bombings in Russia that were blamed on Chechen insurgents. This time, the war was labelled a “Counter-Terrorism Operation” (kontrterroristicheskaya operatsiya, KTO). Under President Vladimir Putin, Moscow launched a stronger military effort and sought to turn the conflict into Chechens fighting Chechens.

The separatists transitioned from open warfare to insurgent tactics in early 2000. By 2002, Moscow had re-established control over Chechnya, installing a pro-Russian government under Akhmat Kadyrov.

While large-scale military operations ceased, insurgent violence persisted, and the KTO remained in place until 2009.

The rise of jihadism and the regionalisation of insurgency

From nationalism to jihad

During the First Chechen War, Islam played a secondary role, uniting factions against a common enemy. By the Second Chechen War, Islamist leaders like Shamil Basayev were playing a key role, reframing the insurgency as a jihad against perceived enemies of Islam. This ideological shift was accelerated by the influx of foreign fighters and connections to global jihadist networks such as al-Qaeda.

By the early 2000s, Islamists dominated the insurgency, with jihad as its central rationale. This significantly impacted both its composition and external perceptions.

The expansion of the conflict from Chechnya to the wider North Caucasus

Throughout the 2000s, the insurgency spread across the North Caucasus, driven by the weakening of Chechnya's nationalist leadership under Aslan Maskhadov, the rise of jihadism, and grievances in neighbouring republics such as Dagestan and Ingushetia.

Dagestan, with its socio-economic problems and inter-ethnic tensions, became the new centre of insurgent activity. Meanwhile, in Ingushetia and Kabardino-Balkaria, local grievances combined with jihadist ideologies. By the mid-2000s, the insurgency had clearly become a region-wide phenomenon.

This regionalisation allowed the insurgency to adapt to local conditions, but also exacerbated competing agendas.

The emergence of the Caucasus Emirate

Maskhadov’s death in 2005 arguably represented the end of the Chechen nationalist separatist project. In 2007, Dokka Umarov completed the insurgency’s ideological transformation, proclaiming the Caucasus Emirate (Imarat Kavkaz, IK) – in doing so, rejecting the ChRI’s nationalist aspirations and aligning the insurgency with global jihadism. The IK sought to establish an Islamic state across the North Caucasus governed by sharia law.

While the IK unified factions ideologically, it struggled operationally, becoming a primary target for Russian counterinsurgency efforts. Its explicit jihadist agenda also allowed Moscow to frame its actions as part of the global war on terror.

The decline of the North Caucasus insurgency

Russia’s “successful” counterinsurgency strategy

The IK functioned as the main umbrella for the North Caucasus insurgency for seven years. By the 2010s, however, Russian security forces had decimated the insurgency's leadership, relying on heavy-handed tactics that prioritised killing over prosecution. In the run-up to the 2014 Sochi Olympics, operations intensified, targeting remaining IK leaders. The deaths of key figures like Umarov accelerated the insurgency’s decline.

However, these successes came at a cost, failing to address underlying grievances and often displacing violence to other theatres, such as Syria and Iraq.

The Islamic State’s advance into the North Caucasus

The rise of the Islamic State (IS) further weakened the IK. Particularly after IS proclaimed its caliphate in 2014, many North Caucasians were drawn to Syria and Iraq. At home, some IK commanders pledged allegiance to IS, splintering the insurgency.

By 2015, the IK had effectively ceased to exist. IS declared the North Caucasus part of its caliphate in 2015. However, this had little impact on the ground, and IS leaders in the regional were also systematically eliminated.

The end of organised insurgency in the North Caucasus

By the end of 2016, organised insurgency ceased to exist in the North Caucasus. It was replaced by isolated jihadist attacks that lacked organisational leadership or infrastructure.

The Russian security services remain the main driver of violence, conducting operations to thwart both real and invented security threats. The future of insurgency in the North Caucasus depends on whether conditions arise for an organisational infrastructure to re-emerge and take advantage of the anti-Russian sentiment and jihadist sentiment that still exists.

What to read next

• If you want to understand more about the structure, ideology, and operations of the Caucasus Emirate, check out 🖊️The Caucasus Emirate (Imarat Kavkaz): An Explainer.

• If you want to learn more about how the Caucasus Emirate impacted the North Caucasus, read 🖊️The legacy of the Caucasus Emirate: Evaluating the impact of an insurgency.